Stonehenge is a
prehistoric monument located in the English county of
Wiltshire, about 2.0 miles (3.2 km) west of
Amesbury and 8 miles (13 km) north of
Salisbury. One of the most famous sites in the world, Stonehenge is composed of a circular setting of large
standing stones set within
earthworks. It is at the centre of the most dense complex of
Neolithic and
Bronze Age monuments in England, including several hundred
burial mounds.
Archaeologists believe the iconic stone monument was constructed anywhere from 3000 BC to 2000 BC, as described in the chronology below.
Radiocarbon dating in 2008 suggested that the first stones were erected in 2400–2200 BC,
whilst another theory suggests that bluestones may have been erected at the site as early as 3000 BC (see phase 1 below).
The surrounding circular earth bank and ditch, which constitute the earliest phase of the monument, have been dated to about 3100 BC. The site
and its surroundings were added to the
UNESCO's list of
World Heritage Sites in 1986 in a co-listing with
Avebury Henge monument. It is a national legally protected
Scheduled Ancient Monument. Stonehenge is owned by
the Crown and managed by
English Heritage, while the
surrounding land is owned by the
National Trust.
Archaeological evidence found by the
Stonehenge Riverside Project in 2008 indicates that Stonehenge could possibly have served as a
burial ground from its earliest beginnings.
The dating of
cremated remains found on the site indicate that deposits contain human bone material from as early as 3000 BC, when the initial ditch and bank were first dug. Such deposits continued at Stonehenge for at least another 500 years.
The
Oxford English Dictionary cites
Ælfric's 10th-century glossary, in which
henge-cliff is given the meaning "precipice", a hanging or supported stone, thus the
stanenges or
Stanheng "not far from Salisbury" recorded by 11th-century writers are "supported stones".
William Stukeley in 1740 notes, "Pendulous rocks are now called henges in Yorkshire...I doubt not, Stonehenge in Saxon signifies the hanging stones."
Christopher Chippindale's Stonehenge Complete gives the derivation of the name
Stonehenge as coming from the
Old English words
stān meaning "stone", and either
hencg meaning "
hinge" (because the stone lintels hinge on the upright stones) or
hen(c)en meaning "
hang" or "
gallows" or "instrument of torture". Like Stonehenge's
trilithons, medieval gallows consisted of two uprights with a lintel joining them, rather than the inverted L-shape more familiar today.
The "henge" portion has given its name to a class of monuments known as
henges.
Archaeologists define henges as earthworks consisting of a circular banked enclosure with an internal ditch.
As often happens in archaeological terminology, this is a holdover from
antiquarian usage, and Stonehenge is not truly a henge site as its bank is inside its ditch. Despite being contemporary with true
Neolithic henges and
stone circles, Stonehenge is in many ways atypical – for example, at over 7.3 metres (24 ft) tall, its extant trilithons supporting lintels held in place with
mortise and tenon joints, make it unique.
Mike Parker Pearson, leader of the Stonehenge Riverside Project based at Durrington Walls, noted that Stonehenge appears to have been associated with burial from the earliest period of its existence:
Stonehenge was a place of burial from its beginning to its zenith in the mid third millennium B.C. The cremation burial dating to Stonehenge's sarsen stones phase is likely just one of many from this later period of the monument's use and demonstrates that it was still very much a domain of the dead. — Mike Parker Pearson
Stonehenge evolved in several construction phases spanning at least 1,500 years. There is evidence of large-scale construction on and around the monument that perhaps extends the landscape's time frame to 6,500 years. Dating and understanding the various phases of activity is complicated by disturbance of the natural
chalk by
periglacial effects and animal burrowing, poor quality early
excavation records, and a lack of accurate, scientifically verified dates. The modern phasing most generally agreed to by archaeologists is detailed below. Features mentioned in the text are numbered and shown on the plan, right.
Before the monument (8000 BC forward)
Archaeologists have found four, or possibly five, large
Mesolithic postholes (one may have been a natural
tree throw), which date to around 8000 BC, beneath the nearby modern tourist car-park. These held pine posts around 0.75 metres (2 ft 6 in) in diameter which were erected and eventually rotted
in situ. Three of the posts (and possibly four) were in an east-west alignment which may have had
ritual significance; no parallels are known from Britain at the time but similar sites have been found in
Scandinavia.
Salisbury Plain was then still wooded but 4,000 years later, during the earlier Neolithic, people built a
causewayed enclosure at
Robin Hood's Ball and
long barrow tombs in the surrounding landscape. In approximately 3500 BC, a
Stonehenge Cursus was built 700 metres (2,300 ft) north of the site as the first farmers began to clear the trees and develop the area.
Stonehenge 1 (ca. 3100 BC)
Stonehenge 1. After Cleal
et al. 
The first monument consisted of a circular bank and ditch
enclosure made of
Late Cretaceous (
Santonian Age) Seaford
Chalk,
(7 and 8), measuring about 110 metres (360 ft) in diameter, with a large entrance to the north east and a smaller one to the south
(14). It stood in open
grassland on a slightly sloping spot.
The builders placed the bones of
deer and
oxen in the bottom of the ditch, as well as some worked
flint tools. The bones were considerably older than the antler picks used to dig the ditch, and the people who buried them had looked after them for some time prior to burial. The ditch was continuous but had been dug in sections, like the ditches of the earlier causewayed enclosures in the area. The chalk dug from the ditch was piled up to form the bank. This first stage is dated to around 3100 BC, after which the ditch began to silt up naturally. Within the outer edge of the enclosed area is a circle of 56 pits, each about a metre (3'3") in diameter
(13), known as the
Aubrey holes after
John Aubrey, the 17th-century
antiquarian who was thought to have first identified them. The pits may have contained standing timbers creating a
timber circle, although there is no excavated evidence of them. A recent excavation has suggested that the Aubrey Holes may have originally been used to erect a bluestone circle.
If this were the case, it would advance the earliest known stone structure at the monument by some 500 years. A small outer bank beyond the ditch could also date to this period.
Stonehenge 2 (ca. 3000 BC)
Evidence of the second phase is no longer visible. The number of postholes dating to the early 3rd millennium BC suggest that some form of timber structure was built within the enclosure during this period. Further standing timbers were placed at the northeast entrance, and a parallel alignment of posts ran inwards from the southern entrance. The postholes are smaller than the Aubrey Holes, being only around 0.4 metres (16 in) in diameter, and are much less regularly spaced. The bank was purposely reduced in height and the ditch continued to silt up. At least twenty-five of the Aubrey Holes are known to have contained later, intrusive,
cremation burials dating to the two centuries after the monument's inception. It seems that whatever the holes' initial function, it changed to become a funerary one during Phase 2. Thirty further cremations were placed in the enclosure's ditch and at other points within the monument, mostly in the eastern half. Stonehenge is therefore interpreted as functioning as an
enclosed cremation cemetery at this time, the earliest known cremation cemetery in the British Isles. Fragments of unburnt human bone have also been found in the ditch-fill. Dating evidence is provided by the late Neolithic
grooved ware pottery that has been found in connection with the features from this phase.
Stonehenge 3 I (ca. 2600 BC)
Stonehenge from the
heelstone in 2007 with the 'Slaughter Stone' in the foreground
Stonehenge at sunset in 2004
Stonehenge in the late afternoon in 2008.
Plan of the central stone structure today. After Johnson 2008
Fisheye image of Stonehenge showing the circular layout
The north-eastern entrance was widened at this time, with the result that it precisely matched the direction of the
midsummer sunrise and
midwinter sunset of the period. This phase of the monument was abandoned unfinished, however; the small standing stones were apparently removed and the Q and R holes purposefully backfilled. Even so, the monument appears to have eclipsed the site at
Avebury in importance towards the end of this phase.
The
Heelstone (5), a tertiary sandstone, may also have been erected outside the north-eastern entrance during this period. It cannot be accurately dated and may have been installed at any time during phase 3. At first it was accompanied by a second stone, which is no longer visible. Two, or possibly three, large
portal stones were set up just inside the north-eastern entrance, of which only one, the fallen Slaughter Stone
(4), 4.9 metres (16 ft) long, now remains. Other features, loosely dated to phase 3, include the four
Station Stones (6), two of which stood atop mounds
(2 and 3). The mounds are known as "
barrows" although they do not contain burials.
Stonehenge Avenue,
(10), a parallel pair of ditches and banks leading 2 miles (3.2 km) to the
River Avon, was also added. Two ditches similar to
Heelstone Ditch circling the Heelstone (which was by then reduced to a single monolith) were later dug around the Station Stones.
Stonehenge 3 II (2600 BC to 2400 BC)
During the next major phase of activity, 30 enormous
Oligocene-
Miocene sarsen stones
(shown grey on the plan) were brought to the site. They may have come from a quarry, around 25 miles (40 km) north of Stonehenge on the
Marlborough Downs, or they may have been collected from a "litter" of sarsens on the
chalk downs, closer to hand. The stones were
dressed and fashioned with
mortise and tenon joints before 30 were erected as a 33 metres (108 ft) diameter circle of standing stones, with a ring of 30 lintel stones resting on top. The lintels were fitted to one another using another woodworking method, the
tongue and groove joint. Each standing stone was around 4.1 metres (13 ft) high, 2.1 metres (6 ft 11 in) wide and weighed around 25 tons. Each had clearly been worked with the final visual effect in mind; the
orthostats widen slightly towards the top in order that their perspective remains constant when viewed from the ground, while the lintel stones curve slightly to continue the circular appearance of the earlier monument. The inward-facing surfaces of the stones are smoother and more finely worked than the outer surfaces. The average thickness of the stones is 1.1 metres (3 ft 7 in) and the average distance between them is 1 metre (3 ft 3 in). A total of 75 stones would have been needed to complete the circle (60 stones) and the trilithon horseshoe (15 stones). Unless some of the sarsens have since been removed from the site, the ring appears to have been left incomplete. The lintel stones are each around 3.2 metres (10 ft), 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) wide and 0.8 metres (2 ft 7 in) thick. The tops of the lintels are 4.9 metres (16 ft) above the ground.
Within this circle stood five
trilithons of dressed
sarsen stone arranged in a horseshoe shape 13.7 metres (45 ft) across with its open end facing north east. These huge stones, ten uprights and five lintels, weigh up to 50 tons each. They were linked using complex jointing. They are arranged symmetrically. The smallest pair of trilithons were around 6 metres (20 ft) tall, the next pair a little higher and the largest, single trilithon in the south west corner would have been 7.3 metres (24 ft) tall. Only one upright from the Great Trilithon still stands, of which 6.7 metres (22 ft) is visible and a further 2.4 metres (7 ft 10 in) is below ground.
The images of a 'dagger' and 14 'axeheads' have been carved on one of the sarsens, known as stone 53; further carvings of axeheads have been seen on the outer faces of stones 3, 4, and 5. The carvings are difficult to date, but are morphologically similar to late Bronze Age weapons;
recent laser scanning work on the carvings supports this interpretation. The pair of trilithons in the north east are smallest, measuring around 6 metres (20 ft) in height; the largest, which is in the south west of the horseshoe, is almost 7.5 metres (25 ft) tall.
This ambitious phase has been
radiocarbon dated to between 2600 and 2400 BC,
slightly earlier than the
Stonehenge Archer, discovered in the outer ditch of the monument in 1978, and the two sets of burials, known as the
Amesbury Archer and the
Boscombe Bowmen, discovered 3 miles (4.8 km) to the west. At about the same time, a large
timber circle and a second avenue were constructed 2 miles (3.2 km) away at
Durrington Walls overlooking the River Avon. The timber circle was orientated towards the rising sun on the midwinter solstice, opposing the solar alignments at Stonehenge, whilst the avenue was aligned with the setting sun on the
summer solstice and led from the river to the timber circle. Evidence of huge fires on the banks of the Avon between the two avenues also suggests that both circles were linked, and they were perhaps used as a procession route on the longest and shortest days of the year. Parker Pearson speculates that the wooden circle at Durrington Walls was the centre of a 'land of the living', whilst the stone circle represented a 'land of the dead', with the Avon serving as a journey between the two.
Stonehenge 3 III
Later in the Bronze Age, although the exact details of activities during this period are still unclear, the bluestones appear to have been re-erected. They were placed within the outer sarsen circle and may have been trimmed in some way. Like the sarsens, a few have timber-working style cuts in them suggesting that, during this phase, they may have been linked with lintels and were part of a larger structure.
Stonehenge 3 IV (2280 BC to 1930 BC)
This phase saw further rearrangement of the bluestones. They were arranged in a circle between the two rings of sarsens and in an oval at the centre of the inner ring. Some archaeologists argue that some of these bluestones were from a second group brought from Wales. All the stones formed well-spaced uprights without any of the linking lintels inferred in Stonehenge 3 III. The Altar Stone may have been moved within the oval at this time and re-erected vertically. Although this would seem the most impressive phase of work, Stonehenge 3 IV was rather shabbily built compared to its immediate predecessors, as the newly re-installed bluestones were not well-founded and began to fall over. However, only minor changes were made after this phase.
Stonehenge 3 V (1930 BC to 1600 BC)
Soon afterwards, the north eastern section of the Phase 3 IV bluestone circle was removed, creating a horseshoe-shaped setting (the Bluestone Horseshoe) which mirrored the shape of the central sarsen Trilithons. This phase is contemporary with the
Seahenge site in Norfolk.
After the monument (1600 BC on)
The last known construction at Stonehenge was about 1600 BC (see '
Y and Z Holes'), and the last usage of it was probably during the
Iron Age. Roman coins and
medieval artefacts have all been found in or around the monument but it is unknown if the monument was in continuous use throughout prehistory and beyond, or exactly how it would have been used. Notable is the massive Iron Age
hillfort Vespasian's Camp built alongside the Avenue near the Avon. A decapitated 7th century
Saxon man was excavated from Stonehenge in 1923.
The site was known to scholars during the
Middle Ages and since then it has been studied and adopted by numerous groups.
Stonehenge was produced by a culture that left no written records. Many aspects of Stonehenge remain subject to debate. This multiplicity of theories, some of them very colourful, are often called the "mystery of Stonehenge".
There is little or no direct evidence for the construction techniques used by the Stonehenge builders. Over the years, various authors have suggested that supernatural or anachronistic methods were used, usually asserting that the stones were impossible to move otherwise. However, conventional techniques using Neolithic technology have been demonstrably effective at moving and placing stones of a similar size. Proposed functions for the site include usage as an astronomical observatory, or as a religious site.
More recently two major new theories have been proposed. Professor
Geoffrey Wainwright OBE, FSA, president of the
Society of Antiquaries of London, and Professor
Timothy Darvill, OBE of
Bournemouth University have suggested that Stonehenge was a place of healing – the primeval equivalent of
Lourdes.
They argue that this accounts for the high number of burials in the area and for the evidence of trauma deformity in some of the graves. However they do concede that the site was probably multifunctional and used for ancestor worship as well.
Isotope analysis indicates that some of the buried individuals were from other regions. A teenage boy buried approximately 1550 BC was raised near the Mediterranean Sea; a metal worker from 2300 BC dubbed the "Amesbury Archer" grew up near the alpine foothills of Germany; and the "Boscombe Bowmen" probably arrived from Wales or Brittany, France.
On the other hand, Professor Mike Parker Pearson of
Sheffield University has suggested that Stonehenge was part of a ritual landscape and was joined to Durrington Walls by their corresponding avenues and the River Avon. He suggests that the area around Durrington Walls Henge was a place of the living, whilst Stonehenge was a domain of the dead. A journey along the Avon to reach Stonehenge was part of a ritual passage from life to death, to celebrate past ancestors and the recently deceased.
It should be pointed out that both explanations were mooted in the 12th century by Geoffrey of Monmouth (below), who extolled the curative properties of the stones and was also the first to advance the idea that Stonehenge was constructed as a funerary monument. Whatever religious, mystical or spiritual elements were central to Stonehenge, its design includes a celestial observatory function, which might have allowed prediction of eclipse, solstice, equinox and other celestial events important to a contemporary religion
The height of the tower is 55.86 m (183.27 ft) from the ground on the
low side and 56.70 m (186.02 ft) on the high side. The width of the
walls at the base is 4.09 m (13.42 ft) and at the top 2.48 m (8.14 ft).
Its weight is estimated at 14,500 metric tons (16,000 short tons).
The tower has 296 or 294 steps; the seventh floor has two fewer steps
on the north-facing staircase. Prior to restoration work performed
between 1990 and 2001, the tower leaned at an angle of 5.5 degrees, but the tower now leans at about 3.99 degrees.
This means that the top of the tower is displaced horizontally 3.9
metres (12 ft 10 in) from where it would be if the structure were
perfectly vertical.
